Combine voltage divider with shunt for solar monitor

Yes, you definitely need to consider the input resistance and/or bias current requirements of the ADC input.

The usual technique is to keep the Thévenin resistance of your divider low enough that the offset caused by the ADC input is "low enough" (e.g., less than 1% or 1 LSB), depending on your system requirements.

For example, suppose that your ADC input resistance is 1 MΩ and you want to keep the error caused by this to less than 1%. Therefore, the Thévenin resistance of your divider should be less than 10 KΩ.

So, now you have two equations, one for the divide ratio:

$$Ratio = \frac{R1}{R1 + R2}$$

and one for the resistance:

$$R_{TH} = \frac{1}{1/R1 + 1/R2}$$

and two unknowns, R1 and R2. It's straighforward math to plug in your known values for Ratio and R_TH and solve for R1 and R2.

1. It's common for a voltage source to drop in voltage when current is drawn. This is down to the source resistance inside the voltage source. When you measure the output voltage of the panel without it connected, then you a measuring the voltage of the panel without any current passing through its internal source resistance. When current flows, it passes through that source resitance and there is a voltage drop across it, so the output voltage now drops.

How much the voltage drops when under load depends on how much current you are trying to draw and the internal source resistance of the panel.

a) It could be natural and a function of the solar panel itself. b) You could be drawing too much current from the panel and the voltage drops greatly.

2. Battery discharging: it could be that the battery is pushing power back into the panel. You can stop this by putting in series a suitable diode. You'd have to measure voltages and currents to work out what it is going on, measure the battery voltage with the panel disconnected at this point. An ammeter in series will tell you which way the current is flowing and hence which voltage is greater than the other and this will help you work out what is going on.

3. Answer: Yes.

4. I can't answer, I don't actually know what's defined by 'bulk charging'.