Magento – How to obtain catalog price rule expire date

Perhaps consider the following setup:

Applying normal discounts (20-30% off some products)
Either do this manually on each product or create a category called "Sale Items" and under that a subcategory for each discount bracket, e.g "20 percent", "30 percent", etc. You can then use catalog price rules on each of these categories to get the desired discounts.

Flash sales
Again, create a category for the flash sale and then create a catalog price rule discounting products in this category. You can set a "to" and "from" date on this price rule.

Showing sale products on the homepage
To show products that have a special price applied to them I usually create a new block called Namespace_Module_Block_Product_List_Special (Special.php). It needs to extend Mage_Catalog_Block_Product_List. You can then overwrite the _getProductCollection(). Here's the whole block file:

<?php
class Namespace_Module_Block_Product_List_Special extends Mage_Catalog_Block_Product_List
{

    //default item limit
    protected $_defaultItemLimit = 4;


    public function _construct() {
        parent::_construct();
    }

    /**
     * Retrieve product collection
     *
     * @return Mage_Eav_Model_Entity_Collection_Abstract
     */
    protected function _getProductCollection()
    {

        $todayStartOfDayDate  = Mage::app()->getLocale()->date()
            ->setTime('00:00:00')
            ->toString(Varien_Date::DATETIME_INTERNAL_FORMAT);

        $todayEndOfDayDate  = Mage::app()->getLocale()->date()
            ->setTime('23:59:59')
            ->toString(Varien_Date::DATETIME_INTERNAL_FORMAT);


        $collection = Mage::getResourceModel('catalog/product_collection');
        $collection->setVisibility(Mage::getSingleton('catalog/product_visibility')->getVisibleInCatalogIds());
        $collection = $this->_addProductAttributesAndPrices($collection)
            ->addStoreFilter()
            ->addAttributeToFilter('special_from_date', array('date' => true, 'to' => $todayStartOfDayDate))
            ->addAttributeToFilter('special_to_date', array('or'=> array(
                0 => array('date' => true, 'from' => $todayStartOfDayDate),
                1 => array('is' => new Zend_Db_Expr('null')))
            ), 'left')
            ->addAttributeToSort('special_from_date', 'desc')
        ;


        $itemLimit = $this->getItemLimit();
        $collection->setPageSize($itemLimit);
        return $collection;
    }

    public function getItemLimit() {

        if($this->hasData('item_limit')) {
            return $this->getData('item_limit');
        }

        return $this->_defaultItemLimit;
    }

}

To use it you'll need to add this to your config.xml under the <global> tag:

    <blocks>
        <modulename>
            <class>Namespace_Module_Block</class>
        </modulename>
        <catalog>
            <rewrite>
                <product_list_special>Namespace_Module_Block_Product_List_Special</product_list_special>
            </rewrite>
        </catalog>
    </blocks>

And then display it on the homepage like so:

{{block type="catalog/product_list_special" name="homepage.products.special" template="catalog/product/list.phtml"}}

Or via layout XML:

<block type="catalog/product_list_special" name="hometabs.products.special" template="catalog/product/list.phtml"/>

You could use the same method to display the special products in each category, but that would require a change to the _getProductCollection() method that checks for the current category. Have a look at Mage_Catalog_Block_Product_list::_getProductCollection() for some ideas on the code to use for this.

This isn't possible out of the box in Magento CE as far as I know so this will require you to extend the SalesRules.

Both Amasty and Fooman offer extended promo extensions. I've used the Fooman extension before and it offers tons of options. Might be worth giving them a try before you write your own code.