EDIT: Answer from Professor Guibas:
from Leonidas Guibas guibas@cs.stanford.edu to
of the "Red-Black" term mailed-by cs.stanford.edu hide details 16:16
(0 minutes ago)
we had red and black pens for drawing the trees.
I believe the term first appeared in "A dichromatic framework for balanced trees" from Leonidas J. Guibas and Robert Sedgewick in 1978.
"Single Entry, Single Exit" was written when most programming was done in assembly language, FORTRAN, or COBOL. It has been widely misinterpreted, because modern languages do not support the practices Dijkstra was warning against.
"Single Entry" meant "do not create alternate entry points for functions". In assembly language, of course, it is possible to enter a function at any instruction. FORTRAN supported multiple entries to functions with the ENTRY statement:
SUBROUTINE S(X, Y)
R = SQRT(X*X + Y*Y)
C ALTERNATE ENTRY USED WHEN R IS ALREADY KNOWN
ENTRY S2(R)
...
RETURN
END
C USAGE
CALL S(3,4)
C ALTERNATE USAGE
CALL S2(5)
"Single Exit" meant that a function should only return to one place: the statement immediately following the call. It did not mean that a function should only return from one place. When Structured Programming was written, it was common practice for a function to indicate an error by returning to an alternate location. FORTRAN supported this via "alternate return":
C SUBROUTINE WITH ALTERNATE RETURN. THE '*' IS A PLACE HOLDER FOR THE ERROR RETURN
SUBROUTINE QSOLVE(A, B, C, X1, X2, *)
DISCR = B*B - 4*A*C
C NO SOLUTIONS, RETURN TO ERROR HANDLING LOCATION
IF DISCR .LT. 0 RETURN 1
SD = SQRT(DISCR)
DENOM = 2*A
X1 = (-B + SD) / DENOM
X2 = (-B - SD) / DENOM
RETURN
END
C USE OF ALTERNATE RETURN
CALL QSOLVE(1, 0, 1, X1, X2, *99)
C SOLUTION FOUND
...
C QSOLVE RETURNS HERE IF NO SOLUTIONS
99 PRINT 'NO SOLUTIONS'
Both these techniques were highly error prone. Use of alternate entries often left some variable uninitialized. Use of alternate returns had all the problems of a GOTO statement, with the additional complication that the branch condition was not adjacent to the branch, but somewhere in the subroutine.
Thanks to Alexey Romanov for finding the original paper. See http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd02xx/EWD249.PDF, page 28 (printed page number is 24). Not limited to functions.
Best Answer
Almost all Unix computers use twos-complement for integers, and in twos-complement -1 is always "all bits 1" regardless of the word size. If you want the largest possible exit code regardless of the size of the program's exit status, using -1 and letting the library truncate it conveniently does the trick.
That's useful because when scripts or programs have more than one possible exit status (see
grepfor a simple example) the meaningful ones are usually assigned to the smallest numbers, making the largest possible exit code a good one to use for "unknown error" or "abort" since it's unlikely to ever conflict with a meaningful status value.