string
is an alias in C# for System.String
.
So technically, there is no difference. It's like int
vs. System.Int32
.
As far as guidelines, it's generally recommended to use string
any time you're referring to an object.
e.g.
string place = "world";
Likewise, I think it's generally recommended to use String
if you need to refer specifically to the class.
e.g.
string greet = String.Format("Hello {0}!", place);
This is the style that Microsoft tends to use in their examples.
It appears that the guidance in this area may have changed, as StyleCop now enforces the use of the C# specific aliases.
Consider a simple function that adds the first N natural numbers. (e.g. sum(5) = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
).
Here is a simple JavaScript implementation that uses recursion:
function recsum(x) {
if (x === 0) {
return 0;
} else {
return x + recsum(x - 1);
}
}
If you called recsum(5)
, this is what the JavaScript interpreter would evaluate:
recsum(5)
5 + recsum(4)
5 + (4 + recsum(3))
5 + (4 + (3 + recsum(2)))
5 + (4 + (3 + (2 + recsum(1))))
5 + (4 + (3 + (2 + (1 + recsum(0)))))
5 + (4 + (3 + (2 + (1 + 0))))
5 + (4 + (3 + (2 + 1)))
5 + (4 + (3 + 3))
5 + (4 + 6)
5 + 10
15
Note how every recursive call has to complete before the JavaScript interpreter begins to actually do the work of calculating the sum.
Here's a tail-recursive version of the same function:
function tailrecsum(x, running_total = 0) {
if (x === 0) {
return running_total;
} else {
return tailrecsum(x - 1, running_total + x);
}
}
Here's the sequence of events that would occur if you called tailrecsum(5)
, (which would effectively be tailrecsum(5, 0)
, because of the default second argument).
tailrecsum(5, 0)
tailrecsum(4, 5)
tailrecsum(3, 9)
tailrecsum(2, 12)
tailrecsum(1, 14)
tailrecsum(0, 15)
15
In the tail-recursive case, with each evaluation of the recursive call, the running_total
is updated.
Note: The original answer used examples from Python. These have been changed to JavaScript, since Python interpreters don't support tail call optimization. However, while tail call optimization is part of the ECMAScript 2015 spec, most JavaScript interpreters don't support it.
Best Answer
Hindley-Milner is a type system discovered independently by Roger Hindley (who was looking at logic) and later by Robin Milner (who was looking at programming languages). The advantages of Hindley-Milner are
It supports polymorphic functions; for example, a function that can give you the length of the list independent of the type of the elements, or a function does a binary-tree lookup independent of the type of keys stored in the tree.
Sometimes a function or value can have more than one type, as in the example of the length function: it can be "list of integers to integer", "list of strings to integer", "list of pairs to integer", and so on. In this case, a signal advantage of the Hindley-Milner system is that each well-typed term has a unique "best" type, which is called the principal type. The principal type of the list-length function is "for any
a
, function from list ofa
to integer". Herea
is a so-called "type parameter," which is explicit in lambda calculus but implicit in most programming languages. The use of type parameters explains why Hindley-Milner is a system that implements parametric polymorphism. (If you write a definition of the length function in ML, you can see the type parameter thus:If a term has a Hindley-Milner type, then the principal type can be inferred without requiring any type declarations or other annotations by the programmer. (This is a mixed blessing, as anyone can attest who has ever been handled a large chunk of ML code with no annotations.)
Hindley-Milner is the basis for the type system of almost every statically typed functional language. Such languages in common use include
All these languages have extended Hindley-Milner; Haskell, Clean, and Objective Caml do so in ambitious and unusual ways. (Extensions are required to deal with mutable variables, since basic Hindley-Milner can be subverted using, for example, a mutable cell holding a list of values of unspecified type. Such problems are dealt with by an extension called the value restriction.)
Many other minor languages and tools based on typed functional languages use Hindley-Milner.
Hindley-Milner is a restriction of System F, which allows more types but which requires annotations by the programmer.